IN THE
NATIONAL PARK
SERVICE
(DRAFT)
Janet
A. McDonnell
National
Park Service
Department
of the Interior
June
2004
PREFACE/ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
What is Oral
History?
Why is Oral History
Important?
Oral History in the National Park
Service
II.
Organizing an Oral History Project
Establish Goals and
Objectives
Determine Staff
Requirements
Identify Potential
Interviewees
Equipment
Budget
Balancing Objectives and Project
Resources
III. Preparing
for and Conducting the Interviews
Background Research
Topics and
Questions
Scheduling Interviews
Setting up the
Interview
Asking Questions
After the Interview
IV. Handling
Oral History Archives
Arrangement
Physical Processing and
Storage
ANCS+ Cataloging
V.
Processing and Using Oral History
Tape Transcription
Editing the
Transcript
Finalizing the
Interview
Oral History as Research
Material
Using the Products of Oral
History
VI. Ethics and
Legalities
Ethical
Considerations
Legal
Considerations
Defamation and Libel
Privacy
Copyright
Deed of Gift/Legal Release
Freedom of Information Act
I.
INTRODUCTION
What is Oral
History?
Oral history can be defined in various
ways. Traditionally oral history is
defined as a primary resource document created in an interview setting with an
individual who has witnessed or participated in a historical event with the goal
of collecting and preserving that individual’s first-hand information and making
it available to future researchers. It is an individual’s spoken memories,
personal commentaries, recollections, perspectives, interpretations, and
narrative accounts of events and experiences. It is a structured conversation or
dialogue between at least two individuals, an interviewer and interviewee, about
some significant aspect of the past.
The interviewer’s questions and the interviewee’s responses shape each
other. Oral history then is a
research process that involves
collaboration between interviewers and interviewees who revisit the past, but it
is also a product in the form of
handwritten notes, videotapes, or audio recordings. An interview need not be
recorded to be oral history.
Whether planning an oral history project, conducting interviews, or using
the products of oral history, it is important to understand both the strengths
and weaknesses of oral history. It
is an excellent tool and process for collecting personal accounts as historical
documents. Oral history often
records perspectives and experiences not normally documented, with an emphasis
on the human experience, and can open up new sources of knowledge. It captures and preserves the
perspectives of those in power and the decision-making process, as well as the
perspectives and lives of populations that have been underrepresented in the
written record. However, oral
history interviews are generally not the best way to acquire certain kinds of
factual information, such as specific dates or places because individuals
frequently fail to recall these details accurately. More traditional historical sources such
as newspapers, archives, and park files are often more reliable, accurate
sources for this.
The term oral history has sometimes been used interchangeably with terms
such as oral traditions, oral testimony, and folklore. These terms are derived primarily from
the disciplines of anthropology, sociology, and folklore studies. While oral traditions, oral testimony,
and folklore all involve similar interviewing techniques, they are distinctly
different from oral history in their purpose, process, standards, and
product. Oral history deals with
first hand knowledge, while oral traditions deals with recollections of the
distant past, passed from generation to generation. Oral history focuses on personal
memories and accounts of events and experiences that occurred during the
lifetime of the person being interviewed.
This handbook is devoted primarily to the practice of oral history, not
oral traditions or folklore.[1]
Why is Oral History
Important?
Oral history can be a valuable, important
research method. It is especially
useful for learning about people's perceptions about a historic event or their
associations with park resources, and for gaining information that is generally
not available in the written record.
Interviews can be particularly useful in situations where written
documents are lacking, particularly in this age where so much is communicated by
phone or electronic mail. Oral
history is a unique resource that has given a voice to those who were frequently
overlooked in the past such as women, minorities, immigrants, and the
disenfranchised, and it incorporates everyday experiences into the written
record. It has helped give voice to
Native peoples, African Americans, and other groups whose past was often
presented and interpreted by cultural outsiders.
Oral history interviews can help explain the thoughts and reasons behind
human action and contribute to a fuller, more accurate picture of the past. In some instances, oral history
interviews provide park staff with their only source of information about a
particular site, event, or individual.
Moreover, the statements of actual participants in a historical event
bring realism and immediacy to a historic site, event, resource, or collection
of artifacts. Interviews can help
give perspective to written sources, provide context, and fill in gaps. They can provide rare insight into the
decision-making process and also capture deeply embedded cultural values and
perspectives.
·
Oral
history helps us achieve the ultimate goal of preserving the nation’s
heritage. In addition to advancing
historical research, oral history can foster a deeper appreciation for diverse,
little known, or in some instances vanishing ways of life, particularly with
Native communities.
·
It
can help identify places that require special care or consideration in
management decisions.
·
It
can verify the authenticity of events and sites that cannot be determined by
more traditional methods of historical research.
·
Using oral history allows us to capture
and preserve important aspects of a human experience that would otherwise go
undocumented.
·
Oral
history helps transmit knowledge from one generation to the next and opens up
new avenues for research.
·
Oral
history helps park staffs to demonstrate to associated communities that they are
genuinely interested in their histories and perspectives.
Although oral history provides all the advantages mentioned above,
remember that it is just one implement in the historian’s, anthropologist’s, or
other professional’s toolbox. No
matter how thorough and successful the interview or interviews, they are no
substitute for archival research and other means of
investigation.
Oral History in the National Park
Service
Oral history is directly linked to the
National Park Service’s basic mission of preserving and protecting park natural
and cultural resources and educating the public about those resources. Since its
inception, the National Park Service has had a unique and important role in
documenting and preserving the nation’s cultural and historical memory. Oral history has long been an invaluable
tool for performing this role.
Park oral history projects and programs vary greatly in size, scope, and
objectives. Park Service rangers, interpreters, historians, archeologists,
ethnographers, curators, and historical and cultural landscape architects
collect and use oral history to document the history of the parks and park
resources, as well as the people and events that the parks commemorate. They use it to document the lives and
cultures of the people associated with the parks and to provide important
information about properties, landscapes, and structures within park
boundaries. Parks can use
oral history to determine how a specific site or object was used, identify
people traditionally associated with a park site, or learn why and how park
officials adopted a particular policy.
Oral history is used to document the events, people, and resources
associated with National Historic Landmarks and the National Register of
Historic Places.
Oral history is a particularly useful tool for parks commemorating recent
events, where witnesses are still living.
The Service increasingly uses oral history to give voice to those who
have been silenced, ignored, or overlooked. Some of the Service’s more recent oral
history projects such as the ones at Nicodemus National Historic Site, Manzanar
National Historic Site, Women’s Rights National Historical Park, and the
Tuskeegee Airmen National Historic Site highlight the perspectives and often the
contributions of women, minorities, and the disenfranchised. The Ellis Island Oral History Project
collects and records the personal perspectives and experiences of
immigrants.
Park staffs use oral history to support their interpretive programs and
to create interpretive products such as exhibits, movies, and videos shown in
visitor centers, museums, and elsewhere.
At Eleanor Roosevelt National Historic Site, Statue of Liberty National
Monument, and many other Park Service units, the staffs incorporate excerpts
from oral history interviews into park interpretation. Statements by people who were actual
participants in a historical event or movement bring realism and immediacy to a
collection of "artifacts." When the
recording is done with the knowledge that eventually someone may edit the tape
and play it back for the public, a different quality and approach are required
than when recording simply to gather information. For maximum impact, first person stories
should have a quality of realism and intimacy not always found in oral history
recordings, and which require the highest quality equipment available as well as knowledge and experience in the use of
that equipment.
The National Park Service uses oral history interviews to support
administrative history in individual parks, in regional and support offices, and
in its service centers. Interviews
with current and former park service managers and staff provide rich source
material for park administrative histories, just as interviews with former
directors, planners and policy makers enrich Service-wide administrative
history. Park Service employees use
oral history in published park histories, park historical resource studies, and
in Service-wide administrative histories.
Oral history interviews can augment park files and in some instances
might be the only way to document important aspects of a park’s
history.
Oral history is used to document the history of individual parks and the
National Park Service as a federal agency.
It is also used to document the events or people that parks commemorate
such as Dwight D. Eisenhower, Carl Sandburg, Elizabeth Cady Stanton, and Orville
and Wilbur Wright. Projects are
sometimes designed to determine the contributions that individuals made to a
movement such as civil rights and women’s rights or to trace the impact of a
movement such as homesteading or steam era railroad industry on individuals and
communities. Interviews with park staff, local community representatives, and
others can provide useful information for park planning.
Park staffs have often done oral history in conjunction with their
various history studies. Oral history helps historical architects and others
gather the details of day-to-day life in historic buildings or at historic sites
– to recreate period furnishings and decorations by interviewing those
associated with that building during a particular era. Oral history interviews can be a
useful tool in the historic landscape documentation process. The National Register documentation
process may occasionally involve the use of oral history.[2]
Anthropologists use oral history to collect individual life histories,
migration histories, histories of extended families or communities, and
histories of tribal settlement.
They use it to document and interpret the traditional uses of particular
objects, artifacts, and culturally significant places. Oral history also helps them identify
and document subsistence practices of Native Alaskans as required by the Alaska
National Interest Lands Conservation Act of 1980 and to meet requires of the
American Indian Religious Freedom Act of 1978, as amended in 1994.[3]
Archeologists use oral history to get
information about the use of natural resources, changes to the cultural
landscapes, the locations of demolished buildings, and the development of
historic districts. They also use
it to identify sites, often by visiting a particular place or area with the
interviewee. They can frequently
gain insights into prehistoric practices, priorities, and sites through more
current practices and decision-making.
Interviews also provide accounts of how a certain process was implemented
or a technology was performed.
Staffs use oral history to document ritual performance, interpret
artifacts and for life histories of the people who used a site or of park
archeologists and cultural resource managers. Oral history helps the Service
develop interpretive programs that are rooted in a solid knowledge of the
culture or cultures involved.
Oral history can be extremely useful in
implementing management policies related to park planning, cultural resource
management, and education, community relations, and
interpretation.
II.
ORGANIZING
AN ORAL HISTORY PROJECT
Initially, doing oral history might seem
much easier, less time consuming, and more cost effective than other methods of
conducting historical research. This impression is usually false. Oral history
is not always the most appropriate or least expensive method for researching a
particular topic or individual. Sometimes written sources will provide more
complete and accurate information.
As noted earlier, oral history is an excellent tool for learning about a
person’s life and career and documenting an individual's involvement in or
perspective on historical events. However, detailed information about specific
names, dates, and events can be difficult to substantiate in oral history
interviews, because people often confuse them so easily. Not only is the research in the written
sources (and quite possibly also in photographs, buildings, and artifacts) still
necessary in order to get oral history worth recording on tape, but conducting
the interview is only a small part of an oral history project. At a minimum the
interview recording should be indexed and properly preserved, and if possible it
should be put into written form.
Careful planning is critical to the success of any oral history
project. Insufficient or inadequate
planning can make even a simple project difficult or lead to less than
satisfactory results. Ideally, the
planning should be done long before the actual interview process begins. Park staff should think as broadly
as possible in designing oral history projects and when appropriate should
consult with local communities or with experts in various other disciplines such
as historians, ethnographers, or archeologists. For example, an archeologist
conducting oral history interview with park neighbors may have questions about
the changing use of the landscape and the locations of demolished
buildings. In this instance, the
archeologist could perhaps benefit from discussing the project with historians,
ethnographers, cultural landscape specialists, and even natural resource
specialists to see if there are other questions to ask of the interviewees.
Representatives in these disciplines might not be immediately available at
individual parks, but park staff can contact Service historians, ethnographers,
and archeologists in the regional offices, support offices, or in Washington,
D.C. for advice and assistance.
Establish Goals and
Objectives
The first, and arguably most important,
step in planning an oral history project is to establish clear, reasonable goals
and objectives. Establishing clearly defined goals is a critical step because it
will affect all other aspects of the project. The project goals will to a large extent
determine the subject, scope, and methodology of the project. They will have a huge impact on the
substance and quality of the information collected and on the ultimate success
of the project. Even if the “project” consists of only a single interview, the
goals should be clearly defined.
A park interested in initiating an oral history project may want to begin
by assembling an advisory committee to help guide the project. An effective committee may be made up of
respected scholars or administrators from within and outside the Service,
perhaps academics from a local university, who are familiar with the subject and
the people involved. It may also
include an oral historian or a professional interviewer to advise on the
interviewing process and techniques.
An advisory committee could also include representatives of the
communities or organizations that might be the focus of a particular project.
The committee can help determine project goals, provide direction, and identify
prospective interviewees. It also may lend greater legitimacy to a planned
project and provide a broad base of support – something that might be helpful in
obtaining funding.
The more the project is focused on specific goals, the easier it is to
accumulate unique accounts that together illustrate the broader themes of
history. Although the natural
tendency is to try to interview as many people as possible, with this approach
park staff risk overwhelming the available resources. Less can often be better. A carefully planned, thoughtful approach
will likely result in more in-depth interviews and ultimately more useful
information. Having said
that, there is also a need for balance.
Ideally, projects need to make the best use of the funds available by
recording focused, well-planned interviews. However, parks are often faced with the
reality that if they did not interview certain individuals, particularly those
who are elderly, their perspectives will never be recorded for posterity. In some instances, an imperfect
interview that has not been transcribed might be better than no interview at
all.
It is important to define the nature and scope of what you want to
research. Some of the questions
that must be addressed in defining the project include the following:
·
Is
using oral history the most appropriate and effective
approach?
·
What information--both
general and specific--do you seek from your interviewees?
·
What basic questions do you
want to address? Do you want to
learn about their lives (biographical) or about a more general subject
(topical)? For example, will the
project focus on the life of Dwight D. Eisenhower (by interviewing family
members and colleagues perhaps) or will it document how the Eisenhower farm
became part of the National Park Service?
·
How
large will your project be? How many interviews (or hours of tape) do you hope
to produce?
·
What
staff and financial resources will you need? What staff and financial resources are
available?
·
What
are the other sources of documentation for your questions? What historical
research or oral history interviews have already been done and how can they be
incorporated?
·
It
is a good idea to focus on collecting information that is not already available
elsewhere. How will the interviews
be used? What kind of product do you want to create and for what purpose? What do you want to do with the
information? Will the information
on the tapes be background for a research project or part of an audio-visual
program? An audio-visual program or
exhibit will require higher quality sound and visual images than interviews used
for research.
·
What will become of the completed
tapes? How will the tapes be
processed and preserved? How will
they be made available to researchers?
After establishing clear goals, it is helpful to outline the specific
objectives that will allow you to achieve those goals. The objectives should address the
more detailed aspects of editing the material, disseminating the tapes and
transcripts that are collected, and incorporating them in an archival
collection.
As important as defining project goals can be, it is also important to be
flexible. It will become necessary
to re-evaluate and modify the goals during the course of conducting
interviews. Some of the original
objectives might prove impractical or the interviews might open new avenues for
study.
After establishing the goals and
objectives, the next step is to determine the staff resources required. How many interviewers, transcribers, and
perhaps editors will be needed to complete the project in the time
required? Will the park or other
sponsor use park staff, contractors, or volunteers to conduct the interviews or
transcribe the tapes? Does the park
or project planner wish to hire a professional interviewer? The availability of funds will to some
extent determine the number and make up of the project staff.
A paid staff will generally provide the
most consistent, high quality interviews and provide greater continuity for the
project. The interviewer need not
be a paid professional, but should have a clear speaking voice and, more
important, be a good listener who can adjust his or her individual style so as
to put the interviewee at ease. The
interviewer should also be firm enough to guide the interview effectively and
keep it within the planned lines of inquiry. He or she should also be
knowledgeable about the subject and flexible enough to recognize when the
interviewee is offering unplanned but valuable information. Experienced interviewers from outside
the subject area will need to do extensive research on the subject matter. By contrast, inexperienced interviewers
who are familiar with the subject matter will often need training in interview
techniques and should become familiar with the ethical and legal considerations
related to oral history.
Select the interviewer or interviewers with care. Good oral history is often the result of
a rapport or bond that develops between the interviewer and the
interviewee. This bond is born of
mutual respect, trust, understanding, and shared experiences or interests. Both parties must share an
appreciation for the lessons of the past and an appreciation for the importance
of the project itself. If the
interviewer is not genuinely interested in the subject, the project will
suffer.
In instances where interviews will be done with individuals whose primary
language is not English, project planners will need to provide for and fund
translators and/or interpreters.
Look for a translator or interpreter who has vocabulary consistent with
the project goals, is familiar with cultural speech conventions, and has the
ability to write in the native language and translate accurately and
objectively. Careful
transcription is critical to preparing an accurate translation. See Appendix E for more information on
translation and transcription.
Identify Potential
Interviewees
The scope and subject of the project (and
perhaps the budget) will to some extent determine who should be
interviewed. It is difficult to
generalize about how to identify potential interviewees. There are no hard and
fast rules. Many different kinds of
people make good interviewees.
Above all, prospective interviewees should be knowledgeable about the
subject of the project and have something to contribute. In addition, interviewees should have
the ability to speak clearly enough to be understood, have a reliable memory, be
willing and able to respond to questions, have an interest in the subject, and
have significant experiences or insights to share. The health or age of the interviewee can
be a factor in determining who should be interviewed and how soon. The advisory committee, if you have one,
should be able to help identify potential interviewees.
Try to be as comprehensive and inclusive as possible in identifying
prospective interviewees. In some cases, additional interviewees might be needed
to corroborate the data of principal interviewees or fill in gaps of
information. In planning, schedule
time for both primary and secondary interviews. Analyze your topic from various
perspectives and then find individuals who can speak to all sides of the
story. For example, on some topics,
you will want to incorporate the views of park neighbors as well as park
staff. Incorporate interviewees who
provide different perspectives and address different aspects of the subject. As
you begin conducting interviews, consider asking your interviewees to recommend
other individuals who might also be good sources. Newspapers, local libraries
and archives, park files, and county histories can also be used in identifying
prospective interviewees.
Traditionally, oral history has been done
with audiotape recorders, but new technologies have emerged and are being used
with increasing frequency, such as video and digital recorders. There are many options to consider when
selecting equipment. The most
critical considerations should be the expected life of the equipment and the
anticipated long-term ability to retrieve the sound. Careful thought about the nature and
purpose of the project and the long-term needs for retrieving and using the
recorded voices will help you determine the type of recording equipment that is
best suited for your particular project.
Since equipment costs vary greatly, often the project budget will also be
a determining factor. Equipment is
not an area of the budget where project planners should seek to cut costs. The quality of the equipment will have a
huge impact on the long-term value of the project.
A great many recording media are used for gathering oral history,
including motion pictures, videotape and audiotape. For the vast majority of
interviews the choice will be audio recording, but there are still choices to be
made. Recording options include
reel-to-reel analog, cassette tape, or digital recorders. Be careful to adopt
only those technologies that adequately record and preserve high quality sound
and will provide for retrieval and access for many years to come. Harpers Ferry
Center’s audiovisual arts division can be an excellent source of advice
concerning equipment, as can archivists in the National Park Service’s
headquarters and regional offices, professional organizations such as the Oral
History Association, and archivists, oral historians, and anthropologists from
local universities and museums.
The use of high quality recording equipment helps to ensure that in the
future you will have the greatest flexibility in using the interview material
that you have produced.
Professional sound quality reel-to-reel recorders are the best for
archival preservation, but are the most expensive and often the least practical
tool for original recordings. With
the advances in technology, reel-to-reel recorders have become increasingly
scarce and difficult to locate and acquire. They are also typically larger than
other types of equipment and are cumbersome and awkward to use, especially when
conducting interviews at remote locations.
Although neither digital or cassette recordings meet the standards of
long-term archival preservation, they provide reasonably priced, readily
available alternatives to reel-to-reel recordings. For many projects a good
quality, moderately priced, portable cassette tape recorder will suffice. Before choosing a cassette recording,
however, understand that usable recordings are unlikely to survive over the
long-term. Even the highest quality cassette tapes are fragile, delicate, and
definitely not mechanically stable enough to be of archival quality. If the original recording is done
on cassettes, consider copying the recording onto reel-to-reel tapes for
archival purposes. Be aware,
however, that this process can reduce the sound quality and add to the project’s
cost.
The use of standard video recordings and digital video recordings in oral
history interviews has become more common.
When considering the use of video recording, carefully weigh the pros and
cons. Video recordings can reveal
facial expressions and body language not conveyed in a transcript or audio
recording. They reveal both the
interviewee’s personality and the setting of the interview, providing color and
context. However, the presence of the camera can make some interviewees
uncomfortable and ultimately affect the rapport between the interviewer and
interviewee.
Video recordings can expand the options for use in exhibits or film, or
in the case of digital video recordings, the option of use on the Internet. If the videotape is to have future use
for interpretation, though, it should be professionally recorded, sometimes
making the cost prohibitive.
Videotaping can be expensive, especially if a crew is needed to operate
the lighting, sound, and video camera.
If funding is an issue, consider selective video recording as an
option. You might interview only
some of the participants in your project or use an audio recording in the
initial interview and later go back to videotape select portions. Again, the use of video recording
will be determined to a great extent by the original project goals and available
resources. Finally,
videotape does not meet the same standard for long-term archival preservation as
reel-to-reel tape.
As a general rule, project planners should buy or borrow the highest
quality equipment they can afford.
If you use a standard audiotape recorder, select one that operates with
both batteries and electricity as power sources to allow flexibility during the
interview. Having the option
of operating on batteries is particularly important for ethnographers and
archeologists who often conduct interviews on site, away from power
sources. The audiotape recorder
should also have a window that allows you to view the tape as it is recording
and have a recording/battery light indicator so that you can easily verify that
the machine is recording properly.
Look for features that allow you to monitor the sound level, that warn
when the tape is about to run out, and that indicate when the batteries are
getting low. Most batteries will
power a recorder for only four to six hours. Mini audio cassette recorders and tape
recorders developed for home use cannot produce adequate sound quality and are
not appropriate for oral history.
The use of hand-held video equipment is not recommended. The videotapes used with this equipment
do not meet permanent archival standards.
Professional quality cameras and studio videotapes should be used for
long term preservation and use in exhibits. Archivists prefer three-quarter inch or
one-inch masters for videotapes.
Digital audiotapes and mini disc recorders also have advantages and
disadvantages. On the plus side,
the recorders are compact, the tapes reasonably priced, and the sound quality
generally good. Digital
recordings tend to have much higher audio quality than cassette audio recordings
and can be duplicated without any noticeable deterioration in sound
quality. The recordings can be
edited and manipulated on a personal computer with readily available computer
software. However, the life span of
the digital recordings is unclear.
Be aware that in the future you will probably need to migrate the data to
newer technologies as those technologies evolve. In the interim, consider
copying the digital recordings into other media.
Using a high quality external microphone is as important as using a high
quality recorder. This avoids the problem of the tape recorder’s internal
microphone picking up the machine’s operating noise. For best results, choose an
external microphone that operates both with a direct current and batteries. Some interviewers prefer lavaliere
microphones, particularly for soft-spoken individuals, but both interviewer and
interviewee should have microphones.
Omni-directional tabletop microphones are another good option. They can be placed in the center of a
desk or table and record all speakers with equal intensity.
It is also important to use name brand cassette tapes with a reputation
for consistent quality. Tapes come
in different time lengths: ranging from 30 minutes (C-30) to 120 minutes
(C-120). C-30 means there are 15
minutes on each side. C-60 with 30 minutes on each side is the recommended
length for archival purposes. C-90
and C-120 tape is thinner and more prone to break or jam. Recordings on these thin tapes can bleed
through from one side to the other. Choose cassettes with screwed rather than
molded or glued casings so that you have direct access to the tape inside to
make repairs, untangle, or splice.
Finally, be sure to take up the slack on the tape before recording. Equipment can be ordered by catalog or
over the Internet from reputable manufacturers such as Marantz or through
dealers. The General
Service’s Administration provides an easily accessible web-based system called
“GSA Advantage,” (www.GSAadvantage.gov), which allows
federal agencies to purchase recording equipment over the Internet from a
variety of vendors.
Budget
The budget for an oral history project
should include salaries, research time, travel, equipment, tape transcription,
indexing, cataloging, supplies, and in some instances administrative overhead or
the cost of a translator.
Budget estimates should also include funding for organizing, storing, and
cataloging the interview materials.
A high quality oral history project can be expensive, but there are ways
to contain some of the costs. Equipment can be borrowed or rented if that is
more cost effective than purchase.
A local public radio station might rent a recording studio at a reduced
rate. Unpaid volunteers can be
enlisted in the project. Volunteers who are skilled typists can perform
transcription if properly trained and equipped. Funding for oral history projects or
specific aspects of those projects, such as tape transcription, can come from a
variety of sources: park operating budgets, private grants, grants from park
associations, cooperative agreements with academic institutions, and other
sources. Locating funding sometimes
requires creative thinking and a willingness to establish partnerships. If project funding is limited, check
with a local university radio station or telecommunications department to see if
a faculty member or advanced student might be available to assist with the
project or if equipment can be obtained at reduced cost.
Balancing Objectives and Project
Resources
After determining the amount of time,
money, equipment, and expertise you are willing and able to devote to the
project, it is important to balance those resources with your goals and
objectives. Consider these
questions: Can you be sure of producing high quality interviews, with the
researchers and equipment available? If you need additional resources, where can
you get them? What is the level of expertise of your interviewer or
interviewers? Is it possible to
have only a few people conduct the interviews to ensure greater consistency?
What local resources do you have? What will it take to pull the project together
and how much time?
The response to these questions will determine how much you can do and
how quickly you can do it. The questions will force you to prioritize your goals
and to build in quality control from the beginning. The key question is, can you
afford to do it right? If resources are limited, it is generally better to focus
on a few interviews first and process them thoroughly, rather than conducting a
larger number of interviews but not indexing, cataloging, transcribing, or
properly preserving them. When the
available resources are not balanced carefully with objectives, far too often
the park ends up with little more than a box or desk drawer full of unprocessed,
unusable tapes.
As you refine your project, your regional historian, chief of
interpretation, curator, archeologist or ethnographer, and the audiovisual arts
division at Harpers Ferry Center can be valuable sources of advice or
review. The office of the chief
historian or the Archeology and Ethnography program in Washington, D.C. can also
provide assistance. Bringing these offices in on your proposal soon after the
initial planning can prevent many potential problems.
III. PREPARING FOR AND CONDUCTING
INTERVIEWS
Successful oral history interviews and
oral history projects are to a great extent the result of careful preparation
and skilled interviewing practices and procedures. Outlined below are some of the
basic steps that are recommended in preparing for and conducting these
interviews.
Background Research
Background research is a critical first step in
preparing for most oral history interviews and projects. When researching an unfamiliar topic or
individual, start with books, newspapers, magazine articles, and other secondary
sources, but also consider investigating the local history section of the
library or unpublished and published genealogies if appropriate. When
researching some aspect of the history or development of a particular park, use
published and unpublished books, manuscripts, studies, and reports, as well as
existing park files, park records in the National Archives, or records in the
National Park Service history collection at Harpers Ferry, West Virginia. Locate and identify the research that
has already been done on your particular subject. Check for a published or unpublished
park administrative history and for existing oral histories, perhaps in the
Service’s large oral history collection at Harpers Ferry Center. Checking all the existing, available
sources will help you to identify any gaps in the historical
record.
After conducting the initial research, outline the specific information
you want, and the particular individuals you might want to interview. Learn as much as possible about each
potential interviewee. Ask
your prospective interviewee to suggest or provide any background material
available on them (e.g. news articles, resumes, etc). Another option would be to ask
prospective interviewees to complete a pre-interview questionnaire. Consider any special cultural or
language factors that might affect the interview. By knowing the basics before you
interview them, you will be able to concentrate on your questions and their
responses—and do a better interview.
The list of potential interviewees might change or expand as your
research progresses. Your initial research should raise new questions. It should
help you decide who must be interviewed and who should be, if time and resources
permit. As mentioned earlier,
interviewees can often be very helpful in referring the interviewer to other
potential interviewees.
It should be noted that there are exceptions. Background research is not always
possible for some interviews.
Archeologists and ethnographers often do background research on the
person they plan to interview but there might be no written record on the
subject of their research. Indeed,
the lack of a written record can be a major reason for initiating and conducting
the project.
Topics and
Questions
After the preliminary
research is complete, it is important to structure the content of each interview in a meaningful way. The project goals will help determine
how the interviews are organized. The structure might be chronological or
topical, or some combination of both.
A life history interview, for example, will be well suited to a
chronological approach, while an interview with a former park superintendent
will most likely follow a topical approach. Using the background research,
develop a list of either topics or questions.
One approach is to develop three kinds of questions: background questions to establish the
interviewee's credentials and life story; core questions central to the research
topic that are asked of every interviewee; and specific questions to be posed
only to those individuals who are most likely to have that information. This
approach provides a body of general information about the topic and enables you
to compare individual perceptions and identify their particular biases.
All interview questions should be appropriate, comprehensive, and
unbiased. Good questions are in large part the direct result of thorough
background research. Greater
familiarity with the subject invariably leads to a better quality and quantity
of information. In addition,
careful research makes it easier for the interviewer to establish a rapport with
the interviewee and conduct the interview.
A well-prepared interviewer will more likely be a confident
interviewer. Although a prepared
list of questions or topics should serve as the interviewer’s guide during the
interviews, the interviewer’s general knowledge of the subject will give him the
flexibility to move beyond that list as the interviewee provides further detail.
Preparing a list of specific questions (as opposed to general topics) has
both advantages and drawbacks. This
step forces interviewers to organize their thoughts as they prepare for
their interviews and provides a
guidepost to follow during the interviews. Having a list of key questions helps
the interviewer avoid unintentionally introducing bias by asking each
interviewee different questions. This is especially important if several people
are doing the interviews or if long intervals of time pass between
interviews. Also, using some
standardized key questions can make it easier for future researchers to compare
the perspectives of different interviewees on a particular topic.
Some oral history experts, however,
maintain that drafting a set of topics to cover during an interview is
preferable to writing out specific questions. They argue that writing specific,
detailed questions may constrain the range and flow of the interview. By contrast, they contend, a general
list of topics allows for the fluctuation and the spontaneity so important to
the interview process and will result in richer, more detailed discussions. The debate over using general topics
versus specific questions will continue.
Ultimately, each interviewer must select the approach that he or she
finds most comfortable and effective and the one best suited to the goals and
purpose of the particular interview or project. The goal is to acquire
information, and interview questions can be covered in a variety of ways. The interviewer should be familiar
enough with the list of questions or topics to facilitate a smooth conversation
that will ultimately provide the needed information. Whether using lists of specific
questions or general topics, the interviewer should remain open to new questions
or avenues for research that might emerge during the interview. Ethnographers often begin with more
general or abstract questions and then follow up with more specific questions
based on the interviewee’s initial response. They might use the follow up
questions to elicit additional information, to determine the particular sequence
of events, or to confirm and clarify what the interviewee has
said.
Scheduling Interviews
Outlining the planned topics and
questions to be addressed will help the interviewer determine whether additional
research is required before conducting the interview. If the interview is a topical one, what
additional background information do you want or need on this particular
subject? If it is a biographical interview, do you want to concentrate on
certain aspects of the interviewee's life? Defining the topics and questions
will also help the interviewer determine if there is a need to schedule more
than one session. If time with the
interviewee will be limited, the interviewer must decide which questions or
topics are most important so that these can be addressed first. If there are plans to use the interview
as part of a wayside exhibit or a film, the interviewer might want to ask
certain questions whose answers might provide particularly good content for such
interpretive uses.
Develop a list of individuals to be interviewed in priority order. Oral
history experts generally recommend that a project start with the oldest and
most significant interviewees first and leave the younger, more peripheral ones
for later. In addition to age,
consider other factors such as mental ability, location, and availability. In prioritizing interview candidates,
also consider the following: Who would have the best overall perspective? Who
could supply specific details? Although some oral history experts recommend
interviewing the most significant individuals first, other experts recommend
conducting preliminary interviews before interviewing these key individuals in
order to gather important background. Key interviewees can sometimes help
identify other good sources. Also
note that multiple interviewees can be used to corroborate information, identify
inaccuracies, and acquire a greater level of detail.
Occasionally individuals may resist being interviewed because they are
unfamiliar with the process and do not understand what is expected of them. To help alleviate these concerns, write
or call each prospective interviewee to explain the project’s objectives and
your affiliation and then request the interview. A common approach is to send a letter
(or e-mail) that introduces the interviewer, identifies the interviewer’s
agency, and indicates the purpose of the interview and the general topics to be
covered. Such a letter or
memo might also briefly describe the project to include the project goals and
expectations. It is important to
convey why that individual’s particular story or perspective is important to the
project.
If the initial contact is by letter (or e-mail), follow up with a phone
call to answer any questions about the project, to determine their
participation, and to schedule the actual interview. An introductory letter, though, might be
ineffective with some individuals.
A short introductory phone call, perhaps with the name of a mutual
acquaintance, could be more effective. Follow up immediately with
correspondence confirming the request for an interview, the general subject, and
the agreed date. If the
interview is going to be tape-recorded, be sure to note this. The interviewer can also send an advance
letter laying out in general terms the subjects to be covered to refresh
interviewee’s memory, which might make the interviewee more comfortable, but
avoid sending a list of specific questions in advance. The interviewee might then provide
rehearsed answers that destroy spontaneity of the interview. The advance letter could also ask the
interviewee to share any relevant documents or photographs at the time of the
interview. Even with these efforts, some interviewees might still be reluctant
to share their traditional knowledge in an interview.
Conducting oral history interviews can be both exhilarating and
exhausting. The interviewer should
try not to schedule too many interviews in a single day. If at all possible, limit yourself to
three a day. Leave time to go back
over the interview while it is fresh in your mind to make notes to yourself
about your impressions, the interviewee’s demeanor, new questions raised, new
sources, and anything else which will help you remember that particular
interview. The length of a good interview may vary. There is no set limit. It is not unusual for a career interview
with a senior official to result in eight or ten hours of tape. Individual interview sessions, however,
are typically an hour and a half to two hours. Rarely should they go beyond three
hours. If more time is needed, schedule another session. Consider the age and health of
interviewee. An older interviewee
might tire more easily, and the interviewer should be alert for signs of
fatigue. If there are frequent
interruptions during the interview, consider rescheduling it for another
time.
Finally, when scheduling interviews, generally it is a good idea to avoid
joint interviews. The more parties
involved in the interview, the more difficult it becomes for interviewer to
retain control over the interview process and to establish the rapport with the
interviewee that is so important.
Also, during the course of a joint interview, one interviewee can
influence the other and dominate the interview, or the interviewees might
compete with each other for interview time. On occasion, a joint interview might be
unavoidable. In such instances,
clearly identify each speaker on the tape to avoid confusion
later.
Select a location for the interview that
is quiet, comfortable for the interviewee, and as free from distractions and
interruptions as possible. The best location may be a conference room or a
private office, perhaps the interviewee’s office. Some interviewees might be most
comfortable in their homes. Large
rooms are typically better for recording purposes than small. Rooms with
carpets, books and other soft materials are far better than austere, reverberant
rooms. Place the interviewee out into the room rather than against a wall or in
a corner because these hard surfaces reflect the sound of his voice and will
give the recording a "hollow" or "tinny" quality. It is desirable to have your
subject's chair on a carpet, which not only soaks up some of the reflection of
his voice, but also muffles any sound of chair movements or foot tapping.
Background conversations and noises are distracting and can mar the sound
quality of the final tape. The
recorder will invariably pick up noises that the interview participants have
learned to filter out such as traffic, air conditioners and fans. Try to minimize these intrusions as much
as possible. Poor recordings take
longer to transcribe and are thus more expensive to process. Also the risk of transcription errors is
greater with poor recordings.
High quality recordings can save a large project thousands of dollars.
The tape recorder should be at least a few feet from the microphone to encourage
the interviewee to speak clearly and project his voice. Individuals are sometimes more
relaxed when they have something in their hands while they talk, and sometimes a
photograph, document, or artifact in the hands of the interviewee can be a
useful tool. However, to maintain
sound quality it is generally a good idea to place the microphone and cable out
of the interviewee’s easy reach.
Relax and put the interviewee at ease. Position the recorder so that the
microphone can register the voices of each participant, but in such a way that
the interviewer will be able to see and monitor the equipment. The interviewer should already be very
familiar with and have practiced working with the recording equipment. Monitoring the equipment during the
interview so that there is a consistent sound level is very important. If at all
possible, someone should accompany the interviewer to operate the equipment, so
that he or she may focus on the actual interview rather than the technical
aspects of recording. Often the
project plan and budget do not provide for a second person to operate the
recording equipment. In such
instances, the interviewer will have to assume these duties; however, the
interviewer cannot give the time and attention to maintaining proper levels and
listening for noise which a machine operator could. If the interviewer alone is
operating the equipment, then it is particularly important to use a tape machine
that has a very good quality, undetectable, automatic level control circuit. The
automatic gain or automatic level control circuits found in the least expensive
machines are not satisfactory and should be avoided. Only the very best
automatic recording level controls can work without an annoying fluctuation in
background noise between words.
Come equipped with batteries, electrical adapters, extension cords, and
any other simple objects that might ultimately be critical to a successful
recording.
Occasionally, the interviewer might want to explain the equipment to the
interviewee before beginning. As a
rule, though, the less attention brought to the equipment the better so as not
to make the interviewee uncomfortable.
The interviewer should quickly check the indicator lights, and make a
brief test recording to see if the microphone is registering the voices and then
adjust the sound level appropriately.
After making sure that the equipment is working properly, the interview
can begin. Each interview should begin with an appropriate, formal introduction
fully identifying the interviewee, the interviewer, and the date and place of
the interview in case the labeling information becomes separated from the tape
or lost.
Some of the above guidance related to the interview setting will not
apply for archeologists and ethnographers who often conduct interviews while on
site visits, in vehicles or outside walking around, or while the interviewee is
handling artifacts. Professionals
in these disciplines sometimes need to weigh the relative advantages of
conducting interviews on site where the interviewees can perhaps recall things
more easily versus conducting the interviews away from their immediate
surroundings where they might feel greater freedom to express themselves. However, the recommendations about
becoming familiar with the equipment, conducting a recording level test, and
monitoring the recording indicators remain valid no matter where the interview
occurs.
Good questioning techniques tend to
generate information that is as unbiased, accurate, and as complete as possible.
Consider the first question carefully for it can help set the tone for the
entire interview. The first
question should be neutral, clear, and designed to put the interviewee at ease.
A simple question about the interviewee’s background or position is often a good
way to start.
As noted earlier, the interviewer should have a very clear idea of the
topics to be covered with this particular individual. Having already prepared a
list of topics or questions helps the interviewer ask questions in a logical
sequence without worrying about occasionally skipping around. It also helps
ensure that all the most important questions of that particular individual are
addressed. Interviewers who have
done sufficient background research before their interviews will already have
some of this basic information. As
the interviewers complete additional interviews on a particular subject, their
knowledge of the subject matter will grow, and they will be able to determine if
the information being gathered is consistent from one interview to the next (and
if not, why not).
Listening carefully to what the interviewee says is just as important as
asking the questions. Follow-up
questions should "flow" from the initial one and follow in a logical sequence.
This order will often change as the interview progresses. Occasionally, an interviewer will
realize that a question he or she planned to ask is inappropriate, has already
been answered, or is even impossible to answer, and will simply drop that
particular question.
Particularly with a list of prepared questions, there is the risk that
the interviewer will move on to the next question on the list rather than asking
a question that follows up on what the interviewee has just said. As a result, important information can
be lost. The interviewer should as much as possible strive to keep to the
overall objectives and adhere to the general outline of topics or
questions. If the interviewee
begins discussing information that is not relevant, tactfully steer him back to
the subject. Interviewers sometimes
use maps, photographs, and artifacts to help the interviewee recall
information.
The interviewer should avoid interrupting the interviewee. The silence created when the
interviewee pauses can be valuable.
Although a long pause can sometimes feel awkward, it may signify that the
interviewee is thinking of additional information. Give the interviewee plenty
of time to answer the questions, and resist the temptation to jump in and help.
If the interviewee continues to hesitate, the interviewer can try rephrasing the
question but should never try to answer the question. One of the marks of experienced
interviewers is how little they are heard on the tape. This often means not
adding other details to the interviewee's account no matter how familiar the
interviewee with the subject. As a
rule, interviews should remain neutral and avoid offering their own opinions on
the subject of the interview.
As Barbara Sommer and Mary Kay Quinlan observe in their short Guide to Oral History Interviews, “The
goal in an oral history is to collect long paragraphs of answers from well
focused, clearly stated, open-ended, neutral questions.”[4]
The interviewer is responsible for guiding the interview and should be able to
judge when a particular topic is exhausted and it is time to go on to the next
question. The ability to skillfully
guide an interview can be refined with experience.
Again, it is important to ask follow-up questions to elicit further
details or to clarify a particular point. If other questions come to the
interviewer while listening to the interviewee, most often it is best to jot
them down and ask them later rather than interrupting the flow of the
interview. It is also helpful
to develop a list of the proper names that come up during the interview. At the end of the interview ask the
interviewee to review the list to check the spelling. This list will be useful to the
transcriber later on.
Review all questions to ensure that they are neutral and appropriate.
Most often, it is best to start with the most general open-ended questions
possible and follow up with more specific questions based on the interviewee’s
responses. Construct the
appropriate mix of open-ended questions that encourage the interviewee to talk
freely and closed questions to get specific pieces of information. Open-ended
questions often begin with the following expressions: “Describe…,” “Explain…,” and “Tell me
about…” Closed questions
usually elicit a one word or phrase response, such as a simple “yes” or
“no.” They provide specific
details, but generally do not promote spontaneous discussion. Avoid questions that are complex and
have many parts. These can be
difficult for the interviewee to follow and respond to. Encourage the interviewee to be as
specific as possible. When
appropriate, ask for concrete illustrations and examples. This will add color and depth to the
material collected in the interview.
Being a good listener is the hallmark of a good interviewer. Being a good
listener enables the interviewer to ask important follow-up questions and to
seek clarification when necessary.
The interviewer should avoid leading questions. The most obvious examples are questions
that begin with “Don’t you think that…?” or “Would you agree that …?” The interviewer should also avoid using
jargon or acronyms. If the
interviewee uses jargon or acronyms, ask for explanations or translations. At the end of the interview, give the
interviewee the opportunity to add information that has not already been covered
or to discuss something he or she was waiting to be asked.
After the session ends, let the
interviewee know how the interviewer can be contacted and if possible tell him
how he] will be receiving a copy of the tape or transcript. It is often a good idea to continue
chatting with the interviewee briefly after the interview to maintain the
rapport and reaffirm that their time has been valuable. Interviewees who have had a positive
interview experience are understandably more likely to help convince others to
participate in the project.
Finally if both parties have not signed a legal release or deed of gift
form before beginning the interview, make sure this is done before leaving the
session. Legal release and deed of
gift issueswill be discussed further in Chapter VI.
Immediately after the interview, label
all tapes with the names of the interviewer and interviewee, date, and place. If
there is more than one tape, number each one on the label and number each tape
in relation to the others. For
example, if the interview was lengthy and resulted in five tapes, number each as
1 of 5, 2 of 5, etc. If using
cassette tapes, pop the two small plastic tabs on each tape so that no one can
record over it by accident. The tape box label should be filled in with the
following information: the names of the interviewee and interviewer, the
interview date and location, and the cassette tape or reel number. The tape speed, make and model of the
tape recorder can also be noted if desired. Make a properly labeled duplicate as
soon as possible to use as a working copy, and store the original separately in
a safe place, preferably at a different location.
Be sure to fill out an “interview log
sheet” for each interview as soon as possible. The log sheet provides
information on the interviewee, a history of the interview including why it was
done, the date and location of the interview, and a rough index to the contents
of the tape. If the tape is to be transcribed, the log sheet will provide the
transcriber with such basic information as names of people and places, etc. If
the tape is not transcribed, the log sheet may be the major reference tool for
the interview. A sample “interview log sheet” can be found at Appendix A.
Finally, send a thank you note to the interviewee. A note is a small but important way of
acknowledging that the interviewee has given his or her time, shared their
expertise and often made an emotional investment. If for some reason the release was not
signed at the time of the interview, this is a good time to mail the form to
interviewee with a request for his or her signature. Including a stamped pre-addressed
envelope will help encourage return of the form.
IV.
HANDLING ORAL HISTORY ARCHIVES
Oral history recordings are perishable
resources that will quickly disappear if not handled correctly. Taking the appropriate measures to
preserve interview recordings and transcripts is a critical step in any oral
history project. Reel-to-reel tapes
typically have a life span of 30 years or less. Cassette tape recordings and videotapes
are even less stable, with a much shorter shelf life. Digital recordings may prove to be the
most perishable medium of all.
Digital recordings can become unusable in any one of three ways: as the
tapes or disks physically deteriorate; as the hardware on which they are played
becomes obsolete and unavailable; and as the proprietary software on which they
are based passes out of use. Even
transcripts and other textual documentation can be lost or damaged if they are
filed incorrectly, organized poorly, have inadequate environmental controls, or
are mishandled in other ways.
Duplicating the original recording to a variety of media forms increases
the likelihood that the material will survive many years. If the original recording is on a
mini disc, a use copy on a standard audiotape, a preservation copy on a
reel-to-reel tape, a verbatim transcript, and an edited transcript, the material
will most likely be around for a very long time.
To preserve oral history collections and
make them available to future generations, it is essential to observe
established archival standards of organization, storage, and description. Some
of the procedures may initially seem complicated, but they are actually fairly
simple and logical. More important,
they are proven methods for managing archival collections effectively. Adopting these methods and procedures
can prevent a great deal of hard work from going to waste and priceless
information from being lost forever.
Think in terms of collections –not individual
interviews. Do not handle individual interviews
as separate objects, but rather treat them as parts of larger sets or
collections of interviews. Each
collection should represent the work of a single oral history project. Collections produced by different
projects should never be merged or inter-filed.
The materials in each archival collection should be
arranged hierarchically.
Collections are usually broken down into smaller groups, called
“series.” Series may be broken down
further into “subseries” and then into file units. File units consist of individual items
or documents. The hierarchical
arrangement provides intellectual control over archival collections, makes it
easier to manage collections, and ultimately can help preserve the
materials. Most important,
hierarchical arrangement makes it possible to do archival reference. Researchers cannot efficiently and
effectively access collections unless they are arranged hierarchically.
Specific arrangement patterns may vary
according to the unique characteristics of individual collections, but the
following format could be used in most cases.
First, divide each collection into series,
based on the physical type of material (magnetic sound recording tapes,
videotapes, paper files, compact disks, etc.), or based on the content or the
nature of the documents. Here is
how a series breakdown (or “hierarchy”) of a single oral history collection
might look:
·
SERIES I: Sound Recordings (cassette tapes, mini
discs, reel-to-reel magnetic tape master recordings of
interviews)
·
SERIES II:
Videotape Recordings
·
SERIES III: Transcripts (paper transcripts of
interviews)
·
SERIES IV:
Project Files (supporting documentation compiled for each interview or
for the project as a whole, such as signed release forms, correspondence with
interviewees, lists of questions, biographical data sheets on interviewees, and
background notes).
It is not necessary to adhere strictly to the example given above. Most collections, for
example, probably would not include videotape recordings. Some may have Digital Analog Tapes (DAT) instead of or in addition to magnetic tapes. Some may include photographs. And some parks might prefer to combine the textual materials (i.e., transcripts and project files) into a single series.
In addition, if an oral history project
is carried out in phases or by teams that focused on different topics, it might
be appropriate to base the series organization on the phase or topic –
especially if attempting to inter-file the materials would create problems. For example, if an oral history project
on Native Americans were conducted with members of various tribes, the park may
chose to organize the collection into series by tribe. If a project on a park’s history began
with a series of chronologically-arranged interviews about its early years but
later shifted to a series of topically-arranged interviews about the recent
years, the difference in both subject matter and arrangement scheme could
warrant handling each of those phases as separate series. If a collection is divided into series
according to phase or topic, however, consider breaking each of those series
down into sub series based on physical type of material, as shown above. Finally, it may be unnecessary to
organize unusually small collections into series. Collections of only three or four
interviews may be arranged at the file unit level.
Second, once the collection has been arranged
into series (and subseries, if necessary), arrange the individual tapes or files
in each series or subseries.
File or tape arrangement within series or subseries is at the discretion
of the park, and arrangement may vary from collection to collection. Materials in each series may be arranged
alphabetically by name of interviewee, chronologically by date of interview, or
numerically (with numbers representing the order in which the interviews were
conducted or some other numerical code that that park wishes to adopt). Within each collection, however, it may
be useful to follow the same arrangement scheme for each series. For example, if the tapes are arranged
according to a certain numerical code, arrange the transcripts in the same
way.
As noted, reel-to-reel
analog tapes are the preferred archival medium for oral history recordings. Archival sound recordings of oral
history interviews should be kept on mastering grade, tensilized, 1.5 mil
polyester analog reel-to-reel tapes, if at all possible. When properly stored, such tapes can
last for up to 30 years. Digital
recordings and cassette tapes are not reliable for long-term
preservation.
Store reel-to-reel tapes “tails
out.” This means that after
recording, the tape is not rewound but stored as is. Rapid rewinding can create uneven
tension, which can cause damage over time.
Do not rewind tapes until immediately before playing them. If a tape is wound unevenly, with edges
sticking out, then rewind it at playback speed until each layer is properly
aligned.
Tapes should be played approximately
every three years to prevent “bleed-through” or “print-through” of voices from
one layer of the tape to other layers, which can cause echoing. Inspect sample tapes periodically and
copy them onto new tapes if there are signs of deterioration. Parks should be especially careful about
inspecting tapes that are more than ten years old and be prepared to reformat
entire collections to ensure long-term preservation. Store each reel in an archival
quality, acid-free tape box. Larger
reels (10 inches in diameter) should be stored in boxes with supports for the
hubs. Each box should be labeled in
pencil and shelved vertically.
Tapes will last longer if kept under
relatively constant temperature and humidity. Archival standards call for 65 degrees
maximum temperature, and a set point of 35 percent relative humidity,
plus-or-minus 5 percent.
·
Do
not expose tapes to ultraviolet radiation or to strong magnetic fields (which
can be given off by electric motors, magnets, loudspeakers, and similar types of
equipment).
·
Install air conditioning filters and
replace them regularly to help maintain a dust-free environment; clean tape
heads on recording equipment to prevent tapes from being damaged; wear no-lint
white cotton gloves when handling tapes; and avoid touching the playing surface
of tapes.
·
Return tapes to their containers
immediately after use.
·
Prohibit eating, drinking, or smoking in
areas where tapes are housed.
The master or archival copy of the tape
should be managed as part of the park’s museum collection, and should NEVER be
used for research. As soon as possible after the interview, make one or more
copies of the tape and use these as reference copies. Only reference copies – not the master –
should be used for making transcripts or made available to researchers. Reference copies need not be managed as
part of the museum collection or kept on reel-to-reel tape. For more information
about tape preservation, storage, duplication, and handling, see “Preservation
of Magnetic Media,” National Park Service Conserve O Gram, July 1993, No. 19/8,
and “Care of Archival Digital and Magnetic Media,” National Park Service Conserve O Gram, September 1996, No.
19/20. These technical leaflets are
available on the Museum Management Program web site at www.cr.nps.gov/museum/publications/index.htm.
Supporting materials such as photographs, maps,
correspondence, and copies of the legal releases should not be stored in the
same boxes with magnetic tapes.
They should be placed in acid-free folders, arranged by file unit, and
stored in acid-free boxes.
For preservation purposes and for ease of retrieval, paper materials
should be filed separately from tapes (as outlined in the section on
“Arrangement,” above). It is
unnecessary to put each individual document into its own folder; rather, all
documents for a given file unit should be placed into the same folder. File units containing a large number of
documents may be broken up into multiple folders, but all of the folders would
still be considered one file unit.
Remove all staples, paper clips, rubber
bands, and other fasteners from documents before putting them into folders. Place damaged, fragile, or acidic
documents into polyester sleeves.
“Preservation copying” of damaged, fragile, or acidic documents onto
acid-free paper is permissible, provided the document has no intrinsic value,
after which the originals may be discarded. (NOTE: it is not necessary to follow
de-accessioning procedures when discarding originals after preservation copies
have been made). Label all folders
with pencil, but do not label individual documents. Place all folders into acid-free,
archival quality document boxes.
Environmental conditions for paper
materials are not quite as strict as for magnetic tapes. Maintain relatively constant conditions
of no more than 70 degrees, with a relative humidity between 30 and 50
percent. Do not store paper records
in wooden filing cabinets or in metal filing cabinets that are susceptible to
rust. Do not place archival
material in rooms with carpets or with particle board, masonite, or plywood
furniture subject to off-gassing, or use strong cleaning agents (such as ammonia
or bleach) that could give off damaging fumes. Do not expose paper records to excessive
light levels, and do not place boxes of documents on the floor or within 18
inches of light fixtures, pipes, or sprinkler heads.
For more information about handling paper
documents, see “Storing Archival Paper-Based Materials,” National Park Service
Conserve O Gram, September 1996, No.
19/15.
Cataloging in the Automated National
Catalog System (ANCS+)
Original oral history
collections that are managed as part of the park’s museum collection should be
cataloged in the Service’s Automated National Catalog System (ANCS+). Catalog at the collection level when
making entries into the ANCS+ Collection Management Module. Individual oral history interviews
should not be cataloged in the Collections Management Module but may be listed
in the Supplement Module or described in detail in the Archives Module (see
below).
When cataloging in the Collection
Management Module, only enter descriptions of entire oral history
collections. Each collection should
be assigned a single catalog number, no matter how many interviews it
contains. Then enter general
information about the collection as a whole – such as the total volume of the
collection, a general description of the topics covered in the interviews, a
listing of the collection’s individual series, and a brief explanation of when
and how the oral history project was conducted. Remember that the description in the
Collection Management Module should only provide a brief overview of the entire
collection.
Parks have the option of using the
Collection Management Module to list individual interviews by pressing the
“Supplemental Module” button and selecting “Container List.” This will be a box-by-box listing of
folder titles or names of interviewees, however, not a full catalog entry. For
further information on how to enter collection-level archival entries in the
Collection Management Module, see the Field Help Notes in the ANCS+ program, or
the ANCS+ User Manual.
Use the ANCS+ Archives Module for detailed
information about series, subseries, and individual interviews. After entering the collection level data
in the Collections Management Module, press the “Send to Archives” button to
copy the entry over to the Archives Module. Then, in the Archives Module, enter
descriptions of individual series and subseries, as necessary, and descriptions
of individual file units or items, if desired. By entering this information into the
Archives Module, everything will be linked, hierarchically, to the
collection-level entry in the Collections Management Module. This will ensure intellectual control
over the collection and enhance accessibility.
Generally, the best strategy is to
provide general overviews of each of the series (i.e., sound recordings,
transcripts, project files). Then,
if the tapes or files are arranged the same way in each of the series – for
example, alphabetically by name of interviewee – select one series to include
file-by-file descriptions providing detailed information about each interview.
For more information on how to enter series-level, sub series-level, and
file-level descriptions in the ANCS+ Archives Module, see the Field Help Notes
in the ANCS+ program, or the ANCS+ User Manual.
Simply revise existing catalog entries as
additional interviews are completed for on-going projects. If new interviews are
conducted for on-going oral history projects that are already cataloged into
ANCS+, it is inappropriate to create new catalog entries in the Collection
Management Module for those interviews.
Instead, just modify the existing catalog entry to reflect the change in
volume and the addition of any new topics.
In most cases, however, it is preferable to wait until a project has been
completed before cataloging it.
Finally, it is important to consult a
park, regional, or National Park Service records officer to determine the status
of all tapes, transcripts, and other materials related to oral history
interviews and projects that are conducted by park staff or by volunteers and
contractors as official park assignments.
If an oral history interview or project was conducted as an official
activity of the National Park Service involving the expenditure of Federal funds
– whether it was undertaken by Service employees or by contractors – the tapes
and all related materials become Federal records, as defined by the Federal
Records Act, as amended (44 USC 2901 et seq.). The recordings, transcripts, and
associated documentation must be managed in accordance with Director’s Order 19: Records
Management. However, if the
interview recording or interview collection was produced outside the Federal
government and acquired by or donated to the National Park Service, the
materials are not Federal records.
These recordings and supporting documentation should be incorporated into
and managed as part of the National Park Service’s museum system. Oral history
materials are not currently listed on the Service’s Records Disposition
schedule, and the National Archives and Records Administration has not yet made
a formal determination as to their disposition status. The National Park Service’s Museum
Management Program will be developing further guidance. In the interim, the best approach is to
treat the original recordings and related materials as permanent
records.
V. PROCESSING AND USING ORAL
HISTORY
The true value of recorded oral history
is determined by how well it is preserved, processed, and made accessible to
researchers. The information
contained in the interviews becomes valuable only through use. If an interview tape is stored in a desk
drawer and forgotten, eventually the information will be lost. Parks should make every effort to
process the interviews as thoroughly and quickly as possible and then to place
them in a park or other archives where they can be made available to
researchers. Processing
includes the following stages: cataloging (discussed in the previous chapter),
indexing, transcription, and editing.
Each tape should be logged in on a “Log of Activity” form that tracks all
the operations to be performed on it from the recording to the final typing and
distribution of the transcript. A sample “Log of Activity” form can be found in
Appendix A.
Transcription is the process of
converting the oral interview into a typescript. It is the transfer of information from
an audio recording into a verbatim written or typewritten copy. A transcript is a reflection of the
spoken word, not the written word.
The recording remains the primary source material. Tape transcription can be a tedious,
time-consuming, and expensive process.
It can take as much as five to eight hours to transcribe each hour of
audiotape. However, the
transcription process is very important for several reasons. The sound quality of tape recordings can
deteriorate over time and transcription ensures that a written record of the
interviews will be preserved over the long term. Also transcription allows both the
interviewer and interviewee the opportunity to review the transcript and make
corrections, a process that ultimately improves the quality and accuracy of the
interview. Researchers find
transcripts much easier to use than audiotapes. Researchers will be reluctant to listen
to hours of tapes without some indication of what they contain. Finally, a
well-packaged and professionally produced transcription is a highly visible
product of the program useful for justifying further expenditures.
When transcription is not possible, it is a good idea at a minimum to
produce an abstract or index. A simple way to index tape is to replay it and
make notes on the content. A tape index can be done by using a stopwatch to
record the time elapsed on each side of the tape as a new subject is
introduced. The notes and index can
become a useful finding aid for the collection.
If you decide to produce transcripts,
look for someone who has had experience transcribing tapes, not just a skilled
typist, to do the work.
Historians with the Washington office, regional offices, local
universities, and historical societies can help in locating experienced oral
history transcribers. If someone
without experience such as a volunteer will be transcribing the tapes, some
basic training will be necessary.
Ask the transcriber to provide each transcript in electronic form (on a
computer disk or as an e-mail attachment) to make the editing process easier. It
is also a good idea to provide the transcriber with a word list containing the
proper names and places noted during the interview to help avoid errors and
gaps. This simple task can save
considerable time and effort later on in the editing process.
There is some debate concerning what to
include and what to leave out in the transcription process and what form the
transcripts should take. It is
important to address some of these issues early on and standardize your
approach. The Oral History Association can provide the most current and commonly
accepted guidance and information about transcription, including the new
computer voice recognition systems.
Other good, reliable sources concerning transcription are Transcribing and Editing Oral History
(1977) by Willa K. Baum and The
Tape-Recorded Interview: A Manual for Field Workers in Folklore and Oral
History (1995) by Edward D. Ives.
Although specific approaches to transcription can differ, there are some
widely accepted general guidelines for transcribing tapes.
·
Do a
cover page with the basic information about the interview, to include the names
of interviewer and interviewee, name of project, and date of
interview.
·
Do
not clean up wording or grammar.
·
Do
not include false starts unless they add meaning. However, if the transcript will be used
for tape editing to produce an audiovisual presentation, include
everything.
·
Omit
the interviewer’s supportive sounds such as “I see,” “Uh huh,” and crutch words
such as “you know”, unless they add meaning or convey the flavor of the speech
patterns. (Again, if the purpose is
tape editing, retain these.)
·
Double space the typescript and provide
adequate margins to leave room for editing.
·
Identify each speaker either by using
their full last names, abbreviations, or by a clearly identified “Q” and “A”.
·
Note
the status of the tape. For
example, indicate “interruption in tape,” “end of side one,” or “end of
interview.”
·
Begin each page of the typescript by
identifying the speaker either by name (or by a “Q” or “A”), even if it is a
continuation of the previous page.
·
Include both the interviewer’s questions
and the interviewee’s answers.
·
Leave a blank space for an word or phrase
that is unclear. The interviewer or
interviewee may fill this in later.
·
If
the spelling of a proper name is unclear, spell the name phonetically and
indicate in parenthesis “phonetic”.
·
Laughter and significant gestures may be
indicated in brackets. (But do this
sparingly.)
If someone other than the
interviewer will be transcribing the tape, even when using a professional
transcriber, consider providing some general written guidelines concerning
methodology (e.g. how to handle false starts, spellings, pauses). If using an untrained volunteer, you
will need to provide even more detailed and precise guidance. For transcription that involves another
language, see Appendix E.
The goal of transcription is to produce
as accurate a representation of the interview as possible while omitting
obviously extraneous sounds, such as street noise or a ringing telephone. However, editing is an important step in
making sense of the spoken word.
People do not always speak in complete sentences with their thoughts
clearly organized and stated. Words
can sometimes sound alike resulting in errors or distorted meaning. Therefore, the interviewer should always
conduct what is sometimes called an “audio edit,” checking the transcript
against the audio recording. This
allows the interviewer to correct any errors that the transcriber might have
made, fill in gaps, and make sure nothing was omitted. As Historian Donald
Ritchie observed, the tape is what was said, while the edited transcript
represents the intended meaning of what was said.[5]
Provide the edited copy for research use, but also retain a copy of the unedited
verbatim transcript in the file for reference.
Here are some basic guidelines for
editing an interview tape transcript.
·
Edit
for style and clarity rather than content
·
Fill
in any blanks left by the transcriber.
·
Never edit so extensively as to modify
the facts or the general impression of the interview, except to remove
restricted material.
·
Remove any false starts that remain in
the transcript.
·
Correct spelling and punctuation
errors.
·
Correct grammar only when the corrections
help clarify ambiguities or misstatements.
·
Remove any restricted sections. Note on
the transcript that the material was removed.
More in-depth editing, for publication
purposes for example, might involve deleting entire words or sections of the
tape in order to make the transcript read more easily. Sometimes words are added in brackets to
clarify meaning or provide additional information. Explanatory footnotes with
additional information may be added when appropriate.
Interviewees should have the opportunity
to review the edited transcripts before the transcripts are distributed or
published to make sure that they agree
with the changes and to address any points that still need clarification.
This step can significantly improve the accuracy and detail of the
interview. Send the transcript with
a cover letter stating that if it is not returned by the prescribed time, the
editor will assume approval and complete the processing. After the editing and review are
complete, the transcript should be put in final form. Again, use of a computer disk and word
processor makes this process easier.
The final version of the transcript should include a title page, an
interview log sheet, a table of contents, a statement of any restrictions or
rules for researchers if applicable, photographs or any other illustrative
matter, and if possible, an index of names and events mentioned in the
interview. As a courtesy and a good
public relations measure, provide the interviewee with a final copy of the
transcript.
Parks have a responsibility to make the
product available to researchers. They do this by publicizing the collection,
making it available to researchers, and providing users with finding aids and
reference guides to the collection.
An ora1 history collection can be shared with researchers and the general
public in several ways, for example through exhibits, articles, books, web
sites, and audio centers. Oral history tapes and transcripts can support a wide
range of different products.
In addition to listing interviews in ANCS+ as discussed in the previous
chapters, parks can report collections of ten or more interviews to the Library
of Congress for inclusion in the National
Union Catalog of Manuscript Collections. A park might consider submitting press
releases or articles to newspapers and magazines that describe its oral history
program, the program’s objectives and activities, as well as any particularly
interesting aspects of the program.
Park staff might write a column about their oral history program or
project for their park newsletter or a local newspaper. A large, well-managed
oral history program could result in a book, which might be published by the
park or its cooperating association.
The Internet is an excellent vehicle for publicizing oral history
collections and making tape recordings and full-text versions of tape
transcripts available to a broad audience.
Users of oral history, whether park staff or outside researchers, should
be provided with some assistance in the form of reference guides to the contents
of the tapes, transcripts and collection as a whole. There are two levels at
which guides should be provided: the level of the individual interview and the
level of the collection as a whole. There are also progressively more detailed
steps in gaining intellectual control over the information contained in
interviews. Park staff should strive to accomplish as many of those steps as
they can.
Step 1: If no transcript is produced, the
completed interview log sheet must serve as the basic guide for that interview --
the absolute minimum requirement for processing an
interview.
Step 2: If a transcript has been
produced, it should have a table of contents that directs the user to the proper
page.
Step 3: An index to the transcript traces
significant comments on people, places, events, structures, etc. There are
various guides, such as The Chicago
Manual of Style, 15th ed. (Chicago: The University of Chicago
Press, 2003), and computer software packages available to help develop an index.
The park needs to make sure that each researcher using the interview
material understands his or her responsibilities. Accommodating researchers involves a
certain amount of staff time and scheduling, so it is appropriate to restrict
use of the collection to serious research.
Researchers should be required to complete and sign a form agreeing to
comply with all the specified rules and regulations. (See Appendix D) The park
should be able to provide a set schedule when a researcher may use the
collection or allow access by appointment.
Oral History as Research
Material
After the interview is made available to
researchers, they too have certain responsibilities, specifically in how they
use that material. A researcher
should treat oral history with the same level of skepticism as any other source
material. While documents can be
incomplete, inaccurate, and deceiving, so can oral history. Oral history is as reliable or
unreliable as any other research material and generally should not stand alone
as the researcher’s only source.
As with textual materials, it should constantly be tested against other
evidence. Oral evidence should meet
the same standard of being credible and verifiable as written evidence. Some
interviewee comments can be self-serving or inaccurate, and some interviewers
can be too timid or polite to ask probing questions. Memories can be faulty and sometimes
interviewees confuse dates, telescope time, rearrange their memories; they
forget names, places and similar details.
Memories dim, and interviewees tend to remember what they believe is
important, not necessarily what the interviewer believes is important. Each interviewee offers a unique
perspective and speaks from his or her own point of view.
When conducting an oral history project, it is helpful to collect as many
perspectives as possible and to weigh personal accounts against each other. The collected stories from a group can
reinforce each other and reveal common threads. In evaluating the credibility of
the interviewees, consider the following questions: Were they in a position to
experience events firsthand or simply passing on second hand information? What biases might have shaped their
perceptions? What subsequent events
might have caused them to rethink or reinterpret their past? How closely does their account agree
with other documentary evidence from the period, and how do they explain any
discrepancies? Where does an interviewee’s account correspond to other
interviewees, and where do they differ?
Again, the interview is not truly complete until it has been processed
and made available to researchers.
Both collection managers and researchers must be fully aware of their
responsibilities in handling this material and using it as source
material.
VI.
ETHICS
AND LEGALITIES
Two critical aspects of every oral
history interview or project go well beyond the content or methodology. These are the fundamental ethical and
legal considerations surrounding the interview process and product or
products.
In conducting and using oral history
there are two principal ethical concerns.
One is a concern for the interview process - the methodology. The second is a concern for the person –
the rights, privacy and dignity of the interviewee. The interviewer must always weigh the
concern for professional research methodology against concern for the person
being interviewed. The ethical
concern for the person being interviewed should always out-weigh concern for the
interview process. The Oral History
Association provides excellent guidelines on ethical behavior. For more information, see its Evaluation Guidelines and its Principles and Standards of the Oral History
Association, Pamphlet Number 3, (Rev. ed. September 2000).
The most important ethical consideration is the interviewer’s obligation
to be open and honest with the interviewee at all times. Before the interview,
the interviewer must carefully explain to the interviewee the purpose of the
interview, his rights in the interviewing process, the eventual disposition of
the tape and the transcript, the immediate planned use of the interview, and the
wide range of potential future uses.
The interviewer should explain that the interviewee will be asked to sign
a legal release and that the interview will be kept confidential to the extent
permitted by law until this is done.
They should never make any
commitments that they might not be able to honor, such as promising publication
or exemption from requests submitted under the Freedom of Information Act.
Respect each individual's right to privacy. This is not only an ethical
consideration but a legal one as well, as discussed later in this chapter. When requesting an interview, the
interviewer is asking the interviewee to share his or her personal reflections
and perspectives and to sacrifice some degree of privacy. It is important to recognize that
participation in an interview and the resulting product can sometimes make the
interviewee vulnerable, particularly if the interview addresses sensitive or
controversial subjects. The individual must weigh the risks of participating in
the interview against the potential benefits. Without candid, reliable information
about the purpose and the planned and potential uses of the interview, the
interviewee simply cannot evaluate those risks effectively. Because of these privacy concerns, in
some instances, the interviewers might need to bring certain risks to the
attention of the interviewees if they do not perceive them for themselves.
If the interviewee perceives personal risk, the interviewer should to the
extent possible adjust the interview process to alleviate his concerns. This may
require adding a restriction clause in the release form or an agreement either
to delete certain sections or avoid certain topics or questions. However, be
sure that the interviewee understands that any restrictions are unlikely to
withstand a Freedom of Information Act request. Because even minor restrictions limit
and complicate future use of the material by Park Service staff or outside
researchers, interviewers should avoid restriction clauses whenever possible.
When dealing with a particularly difficult or traumatic event or issue, raise
challenging questions, give the interviewee the opportunity to respond, but also
respect his or her right to refuse to discuss certain subjects or restrict
access.
As noted, the second ethical concern relates to the purpose of the
interview and the methodology – the way the interviewer conducts the
interview. Interviewers have a
responsibility to uphold the highest professional standards of their various
disciplines and professions. They
should strive to record information of lasting value and make that information
accessible to researchers.
Oral history, observed the Oral History Association, “should be conducted
in a spirit of critical inquiry and social responsibility and with a recognition
of the interactive and subjective nature of the enterprise.”[6]
This statement of ethical principle involves several considerations. First, the interviewee must be aware
that an oral history interview is being conducted and that it is being
recorded. It should be conducted in
accordance with any stipulations previously agreed upon. Also, the process and methodology as
designed and implemented should minimize the interviewer's influence in the
interview. The interviewer should
never allow his judgment or opinions to slant or color the interview in any
way.
The National Park Service and its representatives have a responsibility
always to use the highest ethical standards in creating and preserving oral
history interviews. They also have
a responsibility to make the interviews known and available for research and to
ensure compliance with the letter and spirit of any agreement made with the
interviewee.
Legal Considerations
The interviewer has certain legal as well
as ethical responsibilities, especially when representing a federal agency such
as the National Park Service.
Occasionally the contents of a taped interview can become the source of
confusion or conflict. Access to
the interview tapes and transcripts must be carefully balanced with the
intellectual property rights and the privacy rights of both the interviewer and
interviewee. For a fuller
discussion of the legal considerations, see John A. Neuenschwander’s excellent
pamphlet, Oral History and the Law.[7]
Legal issues related to privacy are
directly related to concerns about defamation and libel. Generally, privacy
issues are handled much in the same way as libel, but there are some
differences. In privacy cases, truth is not an absolute defense as it is in
libel cases. Invasion of privacy
involves the following four causes of action: intrusion into one’s private
affairs; disclosure of intimate or embarrassing private facts; the commercial
use of an individual’s name or likeness without permission; and placing someone
in a “false light” in the public view.
False light involves making a statement or representation that is not
defamatory or libelous, but that is also not true. If, for example, the interviewee relates
a non-libelous story about a third party that would give the public a false
impression about that third person, the interviewee may have violated that
person’s privacy by putting him or her “in false light.”
The right of privacy focuses on the
mental harm inflicted. A right of
privacy claim must have three elements: the use of one’s name or image in an
identifiable manner, without consent, and for the benefit of the defendant. Generally, only the person who is
injured may assert a claim, and the plaintiff must be
living.
The issue of copyright or ownership of
the interview tape and transcript is critical and must be adequately addressed
in the interview process. Under
federal copyright law, anyone whose words are recorded or reproduced retains
copyright over the recording and the resulting transcript. Copyright is defined as the rights
granted by law that give the owner of an original creative work the ability to
prevent others from using the work without the owner’s permission. Copyright begins the moment an original
work is created, or in the case of an oral history interview – as soon as the
interviewee stops talking. The
interviewee - and often the interviewer as well - are usually deemed to be the
author or creator of the taped interview and hold the copyright. The park or
program responsible for the oral history project must at some point secure the
transfer of the interviewee’s, and if applicable the interviewer’s copyright
interest, to the federal government, the National Park Service, or the park by
means of a legal release or deed of gift.
The Copyright Act of 1976, as amended by
the Sonny Bono Copyright Extension Act and the Digital Millennium Copyright Act
in 1998, is a federal statute that provides exclusive copyright protection for
original works of authorship created after January 1, 1978. Under the 1976 Act,
copyright protection is given automatically to original works that are expressed
in a fixed, tangible medium. It
does not extend to ideas, procedures, facts, processes, concepts, principles, or
discoveries. Works of authorship
protected by copyright include literary works, photographs, maps, sculpture,
architectural plans, audiovisual works, musical works, sound recordings such as
tape recordings, and architectural works (e.g. buildings). Unpublished works automatically qualify
for copyright protection provided they are original and fixed in a tangible
medium of expression.
Copyright conveys certain legal rights. The copyright owner has the exclusive right to reproduce the work,
distribute it to the public, prepare derivative works, display the work, and
perform the work publicly. For
copyright purposes, it is important to identify the author. Often the sole copyright owner is the
creator or the author of the work.
When a work is a “joint work” prepared by two or more authors with the
intent to merge their contributions into a single product, as is often the case
with an oral history interview, the authors share copyright ownership. If an
employee prepared the work within the scope of his or her employment (a “work
for hire”), the employer owns the copyright. For Commissioned Works, the independent
contractor commissioned to create a work is the initial owner of copyright
unless there is a written, signed agreement that the work is a “work for hire”
and that it fits into one of nine categories enumerated by statute.
However, federal employees cannot create copyright and have no copyright
interest in any work that they produce as part of their official duties. As a federal agency, the National
Park Service does not hold copyright in the oral histories that its employees
produce. As soon as the interviewee
transfers his or her copyright to the park, the Park Service, or the federal
government, the interview can be released to the “public domain” and can be used
by others without obtaining permission from the author or his
heirs.
However, if the interviewer is a
contractor the situation is a bit more complex. Independent contractors with grants,
agreements, or contracts with the federal government retain copyright for the
works they create unless the terms of their contract, agreement, statutes or
regulations stipulate otherwise.
There are two ways for an interviewer who is an independent contractor or
a volunteer to convey copyright.
Before the interview, they can sign a “work for hire” agreement that
makes the employer the author or they can sign an agreement in which they
transfer or “assign” copyright to the federal government. Their contract must either stipulate
that copyright belongs to the federal government or include the phrase “this is
a work for hire.”
How long does copyright last?
For works created during or after 1978, copyright is protected until 70
years after the death of the creator.
For works for hire or anonymous or pseudonymous authors, copyright
extends 95 years from publication or 120 years from creation, whichever is
shorter. For items published
before 1978 the law is different.
Any work published before 1923 is in the public domain. Works published from 1923-1963 are also
in the public domain if the copyright was never renewed. However, if the copyright was renewed,
protection extends for 95 years from publication. With works published from 1964-1977,
copyright extends 95 years from publication.
For works created before January 1, 1978 but never published or
registered, the copyright is protected for the life of the creator, plus 70
years, or at least until December 31, 2002, whichever is greater. If a work was created before January 1,
1978 and published between January 1, 1978, and December 31, 2002, copyright is
protected for the life of the creator plus 70 years or until December 31, 2047,
whichever is greater.
Infringement of copyright occurs when the copyrighted work is reproduced,
distributed or displayed to the public, or performed for the public without the
permission of the author or his heirs.
Libraries and archives, however, may reproduce and distribute a single
copy of the work if there is no commercial motive, the collections are open to
the public or researchers, and the reproduction includes a copyright
notice. Copyright law provides a
defense against copyright infringement called “fair use.” Simply put, the “fair use” defense
permits the use of the copyrighted material for teaching and educational
purposes, scholarly research, and a few other very specific purposes.
As noted, to minimize the risk of legal
problems, oral history projects and programs must use written agreements that
specifically govern intellectual property rights and ownership of the interview
material. These agreements should
be kept on file for easy reference.
Park Service staff should seek prior written permission from the author
or authors of the work [the interviewer(s) and interviewee(s)], to avoid
allegations of copyright infringement or privacy violation claims. This written permission provides a
strong, effective defense against copyright infringement or invasion of
privacy.
Effective written agreements to transfer rights and ownership can take
several forms. A deed of gift
agreement can be used to transfer all rights and title to an interview. A different, but similar, legal vehicle
for conveying all rights and title is a contractual legal release
agreement. Either a deed of gift or
legal release agreement should be signed at the time of the interview. When a Park Service employee is
conducting the interview, both the interviewer and interviewee should sign a
legal release. Appendix B contains
a model legal release form. If the
interviewer is not a Federal employee (a contractor or volunteer for example),
the interviewer should execute a separate deed of gift with the Park Service
using Form 10-830 (Rev. May 2003) “Deed of Gift” out of the National Park
Service’s Museum Handbook, provided
in Appendix C. If the National Park
Service is accepting or acquiring interview materials from outside the Federal
government, also use Form 10-830 in Appendix C.
The most desirable transfer is one in
which the interviewee assigns copyright to the National Park Service to use the
interview recording and related materials as it sees fit and to deposit it in
its collections. Depending on the
nature and purpose of the oral history project, you may want to ensure that
nothing in the transfer instrument precludes use of part or all of the interview
material on the Internet or in any other manner. In rare instances, the interviewees may
retain copyright and require that they or their heirs be consulted before the
material is released. In other
instances, they may assign copyright to the Park Service but stipulate that all
or part of the interview be closed for a period of time. However, the Park Service has no clear
legal authority to restrict public access and cannot guarantee its ability to
uphold such restrictions. Be candid
with the interviewee about the potential problems that could arise by attaching
restrictions to the tape and transcript.
As noted earlier, it is wise to avoid attaching any provisions that would
restrict access to the interview if possible. More important, the interviewer
and interviewee need to discuss the copyright issue and agree on the terms of
the interview before the paperwork is signed and the interview
begins.
Freedom of Information
Act
The Freedom of Information Act (FOIA),
Title 5 U.S. Code, Section 552, makes most Federal records available to the
public and outlines the procedures that citizens must use to gain access to
these records. Certain categories
of information such as personnel files or trade secrets are exempt. Exemption 6 allows the federal
government to withhold all information about individuals in personnel and
medical files and similar files when disclosing such information would
constitute an unwarranted invasion of personal privacy. If a park accepts the donation of an
interview that carries with it restriction on access or photocopying, it is
doubtful that the park will be able to honor such a restriction if there is a
FOIA request for it. FOIA requests can supersede any restrictions placed on
tapes. The bottom line is that an interviewer can never guarantee the
confidentiality of an interview because of FOIA, and the interviewer has an
obligation to convey this risk to the interviewee.
There are some other FOIA exemptions that might be relevant. For example, under the National Historic
Preservation Act, information concerning the character of property that could
endanger a site can be redacted.
Under the Archeological Resources Protection Act, information about the
location of an archeological site can be exempted when making the site known
could endanger the site. The
Endangered Species Act also provides an exemption.
The law related to oral history continues to evolve. Unless the circumstances are truly
exceptional, parks should avoid conducting interviews with interviewees who do
not sign a legal release or deed of gift form or who request restrictions. Restriction clauses or the absence of
the signed release can cause future problems for park staff and will limit the
usefulness of the interview material.
When thorny questions arise concerning copyright, privacy, libel, access,
or other legal concerns, contact the Department of the Interior’s Office of the
Solicitor for advice.
CONCLUSION
Oral history has been and will continue
to be a very valuable resource for researchers within and outside the National
Park Service. It can be an
exceptional tool for Service professionals and others who seek to preserve and
document cultural and historical memory in the parks or in the Service
itself. Moreover, as noted earlier,
oral history is directly linked to the Service’s mission of preserving cultural
and natural resources and educating the public about those resources. Yet, for oral history to reach its full
potential the interviews must be planned, organized, conducted, processed, and
managed in accordance with the highest professional standards. Service professionals, contractors, and
volunteers must conduct their interviews and handle the resulting products with
the utmost concern for the legal and ethical issues involved and take all the
appropriate measures to preserve those products so that they are available to
researchers for many years to come.
APPENDIX A
United States Department of the
Interior
National Park
Service
ORAL HISTORY INTERVIEW
LOG
Project Name
_________________________________
Interview
No._______
Page _____ of ____ pages
Interviewee’s
Name_______________________________________________________
Address__________________________________________________
Telephone___________________
Date of Birth_________________
Interviewer’s
Name
_______________________________________________________
Address_________________________________________________________
Telephone___________________
Date of Birth_________________
Date/Place of
Interview
_______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
_
Purpose of
Interview
____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Type and Number
of Tapes ______________________
Speed ______
Transcribed? ____ Reference Cassette copy made?
____
Edited? _____
Release Form?
____
Distributed? _____
Translator
information (if applicable)
______________________________________________
Contents of
tape: (Include names and terms that may
need clarification during the transcription process; use additional sheets, if
necessary)
_______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
_
_______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
_
______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
__
_______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
_
_____________________________________________________________________________
United States Department of the
Interior
1.
All
legal title and property rights for said interview.
2.
All
rights, title, and interest in copyrights in said interview, and more
particularly, the exclusive rights of reproduction, distribution, and public
display.
I, _________________________ (interviewee) herein warrant that I have
not assigned or in any manner encumbered or impaired any of the aforementioned
rights in my oral memoir. I hereby
authorize the National Park Service to record, transcribe, and edit the
interview, and to use and re-use the interview in whole or in part. I understand that the National Park
Service shall have no obligation to use the interview. I further understand that I am to
receive no financial compensation for my participation in the project.
_____________________________
_______________________
Interviewee
Date
______________________________
________________________
Interviewer, on behalf of the NPS
Date
UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF THE
INTERIOR
FOR NPS USE ONLY
NATIONAL PARK SERVICE
ACCESSION NUMBER
DEED
OF GIFT
NAME
OF DONOR(S)
TELEPHONE NUMBER (Give Area Code)
ADDRESS
(Number, Street, City, State and Zip)
Whereas the National
Park Service is dedicated to the preservation and protection of objects
significant to the interpretation of the National Parks throughout the United
States,
I/We do hereby
irrevocably and unconditionally give, assign, and deliver to the National Park
Service, for its unrestricted use, all right, title, and interest in, to, and
associated with the item(s) listed below.
I/We do hereby
irrevocably and unconditionally give, assign, and deliver to the National Park
Service, for its unrestricted use, all copyright, trademark, and related rights
and interest in, to, and associated with the item(s) listed
below.
I/We certify that I/we
hold free and clear title to the subject property and any copyright, trademark,
and related rights an interest in, to, and associated with the subject property,
and that I/we may dispose of it in any manner that I/we may
determine.
DONOR(S)
SIGNATURE (Please use ball point pen)
SIGNATURE
DATE
SIGNATURE
DATE
DESCRIPTION
AND CONDITION OF OBJECTS
The National Park Service hereby gratefully
acknowledges the receipt of the item(s) listed above.
SIGNATURE
DATE
TITLE
PARK
ADDRESS
GIFTS
TO THE NATIONAL PARK SERVICE ARE TAX DEDUCTIBLE AS CHARITABLE CONTRIBUTIONS,
HOWEVER IT IS THE DONOR'S RESPONSIBILITY TO SECURE APPRAISALS TO SUPPORT
DEDUCTIONS. (See IRS Pamphlet 561)
FORM 10‑830 Rev May 2003
APPENDIX
D
U.S. Department of the
Interior
National
Park Service
ORAL
HISTORY RESEARCH AGREEMENT
Park
Code: ___________
The
use of this park’s oral history materials, including tapes, transcripts, and
associated documentation is freely granted to all responsible researchers,
subject to the following rules:
1.
A
researcher must register each time he/she uses the oral history
collection.
2.
A
researcher must state the reason(s) for use.
3.
No
oral history materials may be reproduced without permission of the park
staff.
4.
The
researcher assumes full responsibility for conforming to the laws of libel and
copyright that may be involved in the use of any oral history materials in this
collection. To the extent possible,
park staff will assist in ascertaining the copyright status of materials.
I have read the rules listed above and
agree to abide by them.
Signature
______________________________
Date ___________________
Address
____________________________________________________________
Telephone
No. _______________________
Reason(s)
for Use:
Materials
Used:
Park
Staff Signature
__________________________________________________
APPENDIX
E
Translation and
Transcription
The
qualities of a good translator should include familiarity with cultural speech
conventions; vocabulary particular to project goals; knowledge of age, sex,
ethnic, or race factors affecting interviews; depending on project goals,
ability to write in the native language, and ability to translate accurately
without adding his or her own interpretations.
The
translation project should be made explicit, so the reader can easily track how
the English text was derived from the native language. The best translation method involves a
multi-stage approach. First the
spoken source language is transcribed verbatim. Next, the transcript is translated into
English as carefully and literally as possible. In the third stage, it is translated
more freely, in a more readable form.
Ideally, there would be a fourth stage, in which the text is translated
back to the source language and reviewed and corrected by the speaker in order
to ensure that the translation is accurate.
Transcribers
of languages other than English should avoid using international phonetic
scripts. Most languages, including
Native American languages, have easy to use transcription systems developed over
the years by linguists, missionaries, and anthropologists. These systems should be used and native
transcribers enlisted whenever possible.
When
impossible to transcribe an interview in the native language, set up a sound
system in which the transcriber can play the original recorded interview. The transcriber then orally translates
the interview by phrases or other natural divisions of the interview. The new source-language interview and
the translation are recorded on another recorder. For more detailed information about
translations and transcription, see the references provided in the bibliography
for this handbook.
SELECTED SOURCES
GENERAL
Allen, Barbara,
and William Lynwood Montell. From Memory
to History: Using Oral
Sources in Local Historical
Research. Jackson: University Press of
Mississippi, 1991.
Baum, Willa
K. Oral History for the Local Historical
Society. Third Edition, Rev.
Walnut
Creek: AltaMira Press,
1995.
Baum, Willa
K. Transcribing and Editing Oral
History. Nashville:
American
Association for State and Local History,
1991.
Davis, Cullom,
Kathryn Back and Kay MacLean. Oral History: From Tape to
Type.
Chicago: American Library Association, 1976.
Deering, Mary
Jo, and Barbara Pomeroy. Transcribing without Tears: A Guide
to
Transcribing and Editing Oral History
Interviews. Washington, DC:
George
Washington University Library,
1976.
Dunaway, David
K., and Willa K. Baum. Oral History: An Interdisciplinary
Anthology.
American Association for State and Local
History. Second Edition, 1996.
Ives, Edward
D. The Tape-Recorded Interview: A Manual for
Field Workers in Folklore and
Oral History.
Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 1980.
Mercier, Laurie
and Madeline Buckendorf. Using Oral History in Community History
Projects.
Oral History Association Pamphlet Series #4, 1992.
Neuenschwander,
John A. Oral History and the Law. Carlisle, PA: Oral
History
Association Pamphlet Series #1. Third
Edition, 2002.
Oral History
Association. Oral History Evaluation
Guidelines. Oral History
Association Pamphlet Series #3, 1991.
(web version: Adopted 1989, Revised 2000)
Ritchie, Donald
A. Doing Oral History: A Practical
Guide. New York: Oxford
University Press,
2003.
Sommer, Barbara
W. and Mary Kay Quinlan. The Oral History Manual. American
Association
for State and Local History,
2002.
Vansina,
Jan. Oral Tradition as History. Madison:
University of Wisconsin Press, 1985.
for Landscape Historians,” American
Society of Landscape Architects, 1990.
SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY AND ONLINE CASE STUDIES FOR ARCHEOLOGY, ETHNOGRAPHY, AND ORAL HISTORY
Anyon, Roger,
T.J. Ferguson, Loretta Jackson and Lillie Lane. “Native American Oral
Traditions
and Archaeology.” In Working Together: Native Americans and
Archaeologists. Edited by K. E. Dongoske, M. Aldenderfer, and K. Doehner,
pp. 61-66. Washington, D.C.:
Society for American Archaeology, 2000.
Tradition and Archaeology, Issues of
Structure, Relevance, and Respect.”
In Native Americans and
Archaeology, Stepping Stones to Common Ground. Edited by N. Swindler, K. E.
Dongonske, R. Anyon, and A.S. Downer, pp. 77-87. Walnut Creek, CA: Alta Mira Press,
1997.
Beebe,
James. “Basic Concepts and
Techniques of Rapid Appraisal.” Human
Organization.
Vol. 54, No. 1, Spring 1995, pp. 42-51,
1995.
Beebe,
James. Rapid Assessment Process: An
Introduction. Walnut Creek, CA:
Alta Mira Press,
2001.
Bernard, H.
Russell and Jesus Salinas Pedraza, ed. Otomi Parables, Folktales, and Jokes.
Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press,
1976.
Childs, S.
Terry. “Traditional Iron Working: A
Narrated Ethnoarchaeological Example.”
In
Ancient African
Metallurgy. Edited by M. Bisson, S.T. Childs, P. De
Barros, and A. Holl, pp. 199-253.
Walnut Creek, CA: Alta Mira Press, 2000.
Custred, Glynn.
“Oral Traditions and Rules of Evidence.” Mammoth Trumpet. 16 (3):
17-19,
2001.
archaeological record in deep time.” American Antiquity. 65 (2): 267-290,
2000.
Ferguson, T.J.,
Kurt E. Dongoske, Mike Yeattes, and Leigh J. Kuwanwisiwma. “Hopi Oral
History in Archaeology.” In Working Together: Native Americans and
Archaeologists. Edited by K. E. Dongoske, M. Aldenderfer, and K. Doehner,
pp. 45-60. Washington, D.C.:
Society for American Archaeology, 2000.
Hansen, Stephen
A., and Justin W. VanFleet. Traditional Knowledge and Intellectual
Property:
A Handbook on Issues and Options for
Traditional Knowledge Holders in Protecting their Intellectual Property and
Maintaining Biological Diversity.
Washington, D.C.: American Association for the Advancement of Science,
2003.
Kuckelman,
Kristin A., ed. “The Archeology of
Castle Rock Pueblo: a thirteenth-century village in southwestern Colorado.” www.crowcanyon.org/ResearchReports/CastleRock/Text/crpw_oral
history.htm. Accessed July 14,
2002.
Mason, Ronald.
“Archaeology and Native American oral traditions.” American Antiquity. 65
(2): 239-266, 2000.
Spradley, James
P. The Ethnographic Interview. New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston,
1979.
Teague, L. S.
“Prehistory and the Traditions of the O’odham and Hopi.” Kiva 58(4):435-454,
1993.
Werner, Oswald
and G.M. Schoepfle. Systematic Fieldwork,
Vol. 1: Foundations of
Ethnography and
Interviewing. Newbury Park, CA: Sage Publications,
Inc., 1987.
Werner, Oswald
and G.M. Schoepfle. Systematic Fieldwork,
Vol. 2: Ethnographic Analysis and
Data Management. Newbury Park, CA: Sage Publications,
Inc., 1987.
[1]
For definitions of oral history,
see Donald A. Ritchie, Doing Oral
History (New York: Twayne Publishers, 1995), p. 1; Barbara W. Sommer and
Mary Kay Quinlan, “A Guide to Oral History Interviews,” Technical Leaflet #210,
History News, vol. 55, no. 3,
(American Association for State and Local History, 2000), p. 2; Marion Matters,
comp. Oral History Cataloging Manual
(Chicago: American Society of Archivists, 1995); David Henige, Oral Historiography, 1982; and Texas
Historical Commission, “Fundamentals of Oral History: Texas Preservation
Guidelines.”
[2] See American Society of Landscape Architects, “Oral History Guidelines for Landscape Architects,” 1990.
[3] P.L. 95-341; 42 USC 1996.
[4] Barbara W. Sommer and Mary Kay Quinlan, Guide to Oral History Interviews, p. 5.
[5] Donald A. Ritchie, Doing Oral History: A Practical Guide (Twayne Publishers, 1995), p. 43.
[6] Oral History Association. Principles and Standards of the Oral History Association.
[7] John A. Neuenschwander,
Oral History and the Law (Carlisle,
PA: Oral History Association Pamphlet Series #1, 3d ed.,
2002).